Unveiling the Secrets of Turkey’s Underground Cities
Journey into Turkey’s subterranean world and discover the history, inhabitants, and mysteries of Cappadocia’s remarkable underground cities.
Cappadocia, a region at the heart of Anatolia in Central Turkey, is renowned for its ethereal landscapes carved by millennia of wind and volcanic activity. Beneath these otherworldly rock formations, however, lies a deeper marvel: a vast, interconnected network of underground cities that extends through the soft volcanic rock, bearing witness to centuries of innovation, migration, and survival. These ancient subterranean communities—most famously Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı—have held secrets of the region’s civilizations for thousands of years, offering a window into a hidden world where entire societies once lived, thrived, and sought refuge.
The Origins of Cappadocia’s Subterranean Cities
The need for protection, privacy, and resourcefulness lies at the root of Cappadocia’s underground marvels. The construction of these underground labyrinths is thought to have begun as early as the 8th or 7th century BC, with the Phrygians believed to be the original builders of basic rock-cut chambers for shelter and storage. Over the centuries, successive civilizations—including the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans—expanded and enhanced these subterranean networks, adapting them to the changing threats and needs of their times.
- Soft volcanic tuff made the region ideal for excavation
- Original chambers were basic: storerooms, cellars, and refuge spots
- Later expansions introduced complex ventilation, wells, churches, and defenses
These cities were not mere hideouts but fully-fledged, self-sustaining environments where entire populations could survive during periods of danger, war, or religious persecution.
Geological Foundations: Why Underground?
The landscape of Cappadocia is mostly composed of soft volcanic tuff, as a result of successive eruptions from ancient volcanoes such as Mount Erciyes. This soft stone could be easily carved with simple tools, enabling ancient inhabitants to steadily carve extensive tunnels and chambers without advanced technology. The properties of the tuff meant that the underground spaces could be stable, well-insulated against Cappadocia’s climatic extremes, and non-collapsing if constructed with care.
- Thermal insulation: Warm in winter, cool in summer, ideal for extended living
- Natural camouflage and protection: Invisible from the surface; defense against raiders and armies
- Density allowed for vertical development: Up to 8 or more stories underground in Derinkuyu
Historical Context: Why Were Underground Cities Built?
Cappadocia’s strategic location along ancient trade routes—including the Silk Road—brought both prosperity and peril. From the earliest days, the region was an intersection for various empires, religions, and cultures. Its inhabitants frequently faced dangers from marauding armies, religious persecution, and even local banditry. As such, the inhabitants required safe refuges where they could survive for weeks or even months in secrecy and safety.
Major contributing factors:
- Invasion and warfare: Repeated attacks by Persians, Romans, and later by Muslim-Arab forces during the Arab-Byzantine Wars (780–1180 CE)
- Religious persecution: Early Christians created underground chapels and sanctuaries, painting sacred imagery on the walls
- Periodic massacres and population exchanges: The cities were used as hideouts up through the Ottoman era and abandoned only after the Greco-Turkish population exchange in 1923
The Architecture of Subterranean Survival
Cappadocia’s underground cities are architectural wonders, cleverly designed for both communal living and elaborate defense. Each city typically consisted of multiple floors, descending as much as 85 meters below ground (in the case of Derinkuyu), and interconnected through miles of winding passages.
- Multi-level construction: Cities like Kaymaklı and Derinkuyu have up to 8 floors, though only about half are open to visitors today.
- Community infrastructure: Chambers for sleeping, communal kitchens, refectories (dining halls), wineries, oil presses
- Spiritual sites: Carved churches, chapels, and burial crypts
- Livestock management: First floors used as stables for animals; feeding troughs carved into stone
- Storage: Granaries and cellars to hold food and water supplies
- Water supplies: Ventilation shafts doubled as wells, bringing water from deep underground
Entrances to these cities were ingeniously hidden, often beneath buildings or in the midst of villages. Access corridors would narrow and twist, making any pursuit by intruders risky and disorienting. Heavy circular stone doors (sometimes weighing up to 500 kg) rolled into place to completely block access from the inside—a simple but nearly impenetrable form of protection.
Defense Mechanisms and Strategic Ingenuity
The long-term use of these underground cities depended on robust and innovative defensive features. Residents designed the cities to withstand sustained sieges or attacks:
- Camouflaged entrances: Hidden or easily blocked pathways helped conceal cities from surface invaders
- Stone door wheels: Massive rolling discs sealed strategic corridors and could be moved only from within
- Traps and narrow tunnels: Enemy invaders could be trapped, ambushed, or slowed in tight, maze-like corridors
- Air and water security: Deep ventilation wells (sometimes 55 meters or deeper) ensured a supply of fresh air and water even while under siege
- Emergency exits: Some passages secretly connected to nearby valleys or other cities, providing escape routes
Certain features, such as oil holes in the ceilings and floors, allowed defenders to pour hot oil or stones on intruders. This combination of secrecy, robust construction, and active defense made Cappadocia’s underground cities some of the most impenetrable shelters in the ancient world.
The Inhabitants: Life Below Ground
Though originally designed for use in emergencies, these cities sometimes hosted their inhabitants for extended periods—weeks or even months at a stretch. Life underground was communal, with families living and working side-by-side.
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Population | Derinkuyu could shelter up to 20,000 people. Kaymaklı held an estimated 3,000 residents. |
| Spaces | Living quarters, kitchens, wineries, churches, burial sites, wells, and storage. |
| Ventilation | Extensive shafts provided fresh air; critical for survival and discreet smoke dispersion. |
| Animals | Stables near the surface for livestock—necessary for food and farming. |
Even during peaceful times, the underground cities were sometimes used for storage, refrigeration, and as cellars. Some passages connected villages, allowing for secret movement or escape if needed. During periods of attack, inhabitants would retreat, block off entrances, ration food, and continue daily tasks in the safety of their subterranean community.
Derinkuyu: The Deepest Underground City
The most famous and extensive of all Cappadocia’s underground cities is Derinkuyu, reaching a dizzying depth of approximately 85 meters. Archaeologists estimate that the site was developed over thousands of years, with major expansions during the Byzantine era to provide refuge from Arab invasions.
- Up to 20,000 people plus livestock could take shelter here
- Features: Religious school with barrel-vaulted ceiling, chapels, massive communal rooms
- Infrastructure: 55-meter-deep ventilation shafts and wells for clean water in times of siege
- Defense: Entire floors could be isolated by stone doors, ensuring compartmentalized security in case of breach
Derinkuyu’s sheer size and complexity astounded archaeologists when it was rediscovered in 1963 by a local resident. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and one of Turkey’s most popular tourist destinations.
Kaymaklı: The Most Accessible Subterranean Community
Just 20 km from Nevşehir city, Kaymaklı Underground City is the most visited and renowned for its accessibility and preservation. Compared to Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı’s tunnels are somewhat wider, and many original features survive today:
- Eight levels deep—four open to the public today
- Communal life: Second floor contains original church; living quarters and graves
- Industry: Kitchens, wine presses, and storage areas on the third level
- Strategic defense: Giant bolt-locked doors and labyrinthine corridors
Some historians suspect that Kaymaklı and Derinkuyu may have been connected by tunnels, suggesting an interconnected web of subterranean settlements offering even greater safety and flexibility in times of siege. Residents used the first floor of Kaymaklı for livestock, with humans living deeper underground, benefiting from both climate regulation and enhanced security.
Tatlarin, Özkonak, and Other Notable Cities
Although Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı are the most dramatic, they are just two among dozens of known underground sites:
- Tatlarin: Discovered only in 1975, this city is thought to have religious or military significance, with large halls and toilets over 3,000 years old.
- Özkonak: Known for its advanced communications system—small holes bored between rooms allow for conversation, and its stone doors contain holes for attacking invaders with spears or hot oil.
- Mazi and Özlüce: Less developed for tourism, but offer a glimpse of untouched underground life.
Each of these cities includes some combination of granaries, sleeping chambers, worship spaces, and defenses, patterned on the same principles found throughout Cappadocia.
Rediscovery and Modern-Day Exploration
For centuries, the underground cities of Cappadocia remained largely forgotten or known only to local villagers. In the 1960s, a hidden underground chamber was uncovered during a home renovation, leading to the rediscovery of Derinkuyu and sparking intensive archaeological exploration.
Today, several sites are open to the public and feature:
- Guided tours through lit, ventilated tunnels
- Interpretive signage illuminating historical and architectural features
- Unique opportunities to stay overnight in cave hotels, offering a taste of subterranean living
The mysterious allure and ancient heritage of Cappadocia’s hidden cities attract thousands of visitors annually, offering a firsthand glimpse into a world shaped by resilience and ingenuity.
The Enduring Legacy of Cappadocia’s Subterranean World
Cappadocia’s underground cities are more than mere architectural curiosities: they are enduring testaments to the adaptability and ingenuity of the region’s inhabitants. Over centuries, these cities protected entire communities, allowed for religious and cultural preservation in times of crisis, and remain today as a profound reminder of humanity’s capacity to reshape even the harshest environments in the service of survival and faith.
Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1985, these subterranean sanctuaries not only attract tourists but also inspire ongoing archaeological discovery, with new chambers and entire cities periodically unearthed beneath the poetic Cappadocian landscape.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q: How many underground cities are in Cappadocia?
A: Over 35 underground cities have been identified throughout Cappadocia, with several more regularly being discovered by archaeologists.
Q: Who built the underground cities and why?
A: Initial construction likely began with the Phrygians or Hittites for shelter and protection. Subsequent generations, especially early Christians and Byzantines, expanded the cities extensively as refuges from war and religious persecution.
Q: Are the underground cities connected?
A: Some tunnels are believed to have connected cities such as Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı, enabling underground travel over long distances during emergencies.
Q: Can tourists visit these underground cities?
A: Yes, major sites such as Derinkuyu and Kaymaklı are open to visitors, as are other smaller or less developed sites across the region.
Q: What should visitors expect when touring an underground city?
A: Expect to navigate narrow, winding tunnels, climb steep stairs, and see a variety of ancient chambers, chapels, and defensive structures. Some tunnels can be claustrophobic, so visitors with tight-space sensitivities should take caution.
